Cite this as: van Tongeren, T. 2026 Furnace Fields: Iron Age and Roman Metalworking between York and the Humber, Internet Archaeology 71. https://doi.org/10.11141/ia.71.11
An archaeological investigation associated with a proposed renewable energy development at Thornton in the East Riding of Yorkshire (UK) revealed extensive evidence for middle Iron Age to early Roman industrial activity. The site demonstrates how communities adapted settlement patterns, enclosure systems and production strategies in response to changing environmental conditions. The availability of fuelwood and bog iron ore within this hydrologically sensitive setting created favourable conditions for iron production, situating Thornton within a wider zone of metalworking activity in the Vale of York. Radiocarbon dating shows that iron smelting was firmly established during the middle Iron Age, with dates clustering in the fourth to second centuries BC and extending into the late Iron Age and early Roman period. Evidence shows this to be a long-lived industrial landscape in which enclosure systems were repeatedly modified and re-cut, serving both drainage and waste-disposal functions. By the Roman period, these systems were reconfigured, with activity extending into Core Area 6, reflecting evolving land-use practices rather than abrupt abandonment.
The recovery of a large quantity of archaeometallurgical residues, including a uniquely intact 155kg furnace bottom, confirms large-scale non-slag tapping slag-pit smelting employing wood pit-packing. Microstructural and elemental analyses demonstrate technological consistency across the assemblage and confirm that the residues derive predominantly from smelting rather than smithing. The large size of the furnace bottom suggests blooms were produced sequentially, rather than singly. Requiring considerable ore and charcoal, it is also suggestive of a communal effort. Similarly sized furnaces are known from the early and middle Iron Age further south in England but they are unknown from the Midlands and the North. The Thornton furnace bottom is described in detail and provides the first microstructural dataset for Iron Age smelting residues from East Yorkshire.
Corresponding author: Tim van Tongeren
[email protected]
Headland Archaeology 
Tim Young
[email protected]
GeoArch
Figure 1: Site Location. Image credit: Headland Archaeology (UK)
Figure 2: Site Plan [zoomable]. Image credit: Headland Archaeology (UK)
Figure 3: Distribution of radiocarbon dates and finds [zoomable]. Image credit: Headland Archaeology (UK)
Figure 4: Selected pottery vessels found at Thornton. Image credit: Headland Archaeology (UK)
Figure 5: North-east facing overview photo of pit [085009] in Trench 85, containing a middle Iron Age furnace bottom. Image credit: Headland Archaeology (UK)
Figure 6: South-facing section of pit [085009] in Trench 85, truncating ditches [085005] and [085012] and containing a large middle Iron Age furnace bottom. Image credit: Headland Archaeology (UK)
Figure 7: 3D-rendering of an intact furnace bottom from pit fill (085010). Image credit: Headland Archaeology (UK)
Figure 8: South-west facing overview photo of ditch slot [137003] in Trench 137. Image credit: Headland Archaeology (UK)
Figure 9: North-east facing overview photo of ditch slot [137008] in Trench 137, containing a large quantity of pottery. Image credit: Headland Archaeology (UK)
Figure 10: West-facing section of ditch slot [137008] in Trench 137, containing a large quantity of pottery. Image credit: Headland Archaeology (UK)
Figure 11: North-facing overview photo of ditch slot [040018] in Trench 40, with fills showing the effect of prolonged waterlogging. Image credit: Headland Archaeology (UK)
Figure 12: West facing overview photo of ditch slot [135007] in Trench 135. Image credit: Headland Archaeology (UK)
Figure 13: South-facing overview photo of the ring-ditch in Trench 133, including slot [133008]. Image credit: Headland Archaeology (UK)
Figure 14: North-east facing overview photo of Trench 26, including the double-ditched enclosures. Image credit: Headland Archaeology (UK)
Figure 15: North-west facing section of the relationship between ditches [037003] and [037006] in Trench 37, Core Area 1. Image credit: Headland Archaeology (UK)
Figure 16: 3D-rendering of intact furnace bottom from pit fill (085010). Scale bar gives an approximate scale. (A) Upper surface, proximal end to right, distal to left. (B). Lower surface, proximal end to left, distal to right. (C) Left lateral surface, proximal end to right, distal to left. (D) Proximal surface, upper surface to top (Young 2025a, 66)
Figure 17: Detail of the lower surface of the intact furnace bottom from pit fill (085010). Scale in cm. The area just above scale shows typical preservation of wood pit-packing as moulds (in this instance lying sub-horizontally), with shrinkage cracks (filled by slag) breaking the mould into smaller regions (Young 2025a, 72)
Figure 18: Details of locations of samples TSSF3-5 within a single large (2850g) slag block from ditch fill (074004). Sample TSSF5 is flow slag flowing away from the wall, sample TSSF3 is from a sliver of partially melted dark grey wall, and TSSF4 is part of the burr, or burr-like, zone of interaction between the slag and wall (Young 2025a, 72)
Figure 19: Backscattered electron image montage of sample TSSF5 (Young 2025a, 74)
Figure 20a-h: Backscattered electron images of sample TSSF5. (A) Typical microstructure of the wustite-dominated part of the sample. (B) Detail from with wustite-dominated area. Wustite (pale) shows exsolved laminae of magnetite (pale grey). The main secondary phase is olivine (mid-grey) to which the interstices are mainly a cotectic of leucite (very dark grey) and fine wustite. (C) as (B) but with a more complex interstitial microstructure, involving late olivine (pale grey) and apatite. (D) as (C) but with a larger interstitial area with large elongate apatite grains, as well as some iron sulphides (bright). (E) Margin of the wustite-dominated area showing a variation in the density of wustite dendrites, perhaps indicative of the remnants of an ore particle. (F) The microstructure within a wustite-poor area. The rounded outlines are former prills of metallic iron, wustite is limited, and the olivine contains a cotectic hercynite grain. (G) Typical microstructure of a wustite-poor area, dominated by olivine (pale grey). (H) detail of an interstitial area in the wustite-poor region. The interstitial area is partly filled by a leucite-wustite cotectic and partly by a complex finely crystalline region of olivine and apatite. Some of the olivine (lower right) shows a cotectic with wustite (Young 2025a, 75)
Figure 21: Graphs of olivine composition. The percentage of (Fe+Mg) substitution by Mn and by Ca (i.e. in the octahedral sites) and that of Si by P (in the tetrahedral sites) are shown, each plotted against to the proportion of Fe to (Fe+Mg) (i.e. the proportion of fayalite (Fa) in the fayalite to forsterite (Fo) solid solution) (Young 2025a, 76)
Figure 22: Backscattered electron image montage of sample TSSF11 (Young 2025a, 78)
Figure 23: Backscattered electron images of sample TSSF11, (23A) typical microstructure, with primary olivine (pale grey), with its outer parts showing cotectic hercynite. Wustite is restricted to intercalation in the outer parts of the olivine and to interstitial areas, (23B) detail of microstructure shown in (23A) with complex finely crystalline interstitial areas with phosphate minerals, olivine, (23C) areas interstitial to the olivine commonly show a microcrystalline microstructure, probably a quench texture, (23D) detail of microstructure shown in (23C) with microcrystalline interstitial phases (Young 2025a, 79)
Figure 24: Backscattered electron image montage of sample TSSF12 (Young 2025a, 80)
Figure 25: Backscattered electron images of sample TSSF12. (A) The microstructure within the wustite-dominated area. Wustite is followed by olivine with poorly preserved minor interstitial areas, (B) as (A) but with minor remnants of prills of metallic iron – now completely weathered. (C) Detail of the microstructure in an area outside the wustite-dominated zone. There is evidence for the former presence of abundant prills of metallic iron – now entirely weathered. The texture is highly altered. (D) A variant of the wustite-poor microstructure that has a modest amount of primary wustite dendrites alongside the abundant weathered metallic iron (Young 2025a, 81)
Figure 26: Analyses of materials from Thornton plotted within the ternary system FeO–SiO₂–Al₂O₃ [fields after Schairer and Yagi 1952, Fig 6] (Young 2025a, 82)
Figure 27: Upper crust-normalised rare earth element (REE) profiles (normalisation after Taylor and McLennan 1981) for samples from Thornton (Young 2025a, 83)
Figure 28: Plots of various element and elemental oxide species against silica for the samples from Thornton. The plot of alumina against silica includes the key for the identification of individual samples (Young 2025a, 84)
Figure 29: Binary plots of the sample analyses, also including a model for the smelting system (after the methodology of Young 2016b). The dashed purple line is the tie line between the measured composition of sample of furnace ceramic TSSF1 and a model ore composition (open circle). The blue arrow shows the trajectory of slag composition as iron is extracted from the smelting mixture, based on a smelting mixture of 12% lining and 88% ore (typical parameters observed in other works). The orange dashed line represents a mixing line between furnace ceramic TSSF1 and slag compositions capable of generating the observed composition of burr sample TSSF4. The lilac arrow gives an indication of the evolution of a partial melt of the furnace lining (Young 2025a, 85)
Table 1: Results of radiocarbon dating for Thornton SOAY Solar Farm and Greener Grid Park
Table 2: Typology of pottery vessels found in Core Area 2 (Rowlandson 2025, 67)
Table 3: Typology of pottery vessels found in Core Area 3 (Rowlandson 2025, 68). Pottery is illustrated in Figure 4
Table 4: List of analysed archaeometallurgy samples
Table 5: Metallurgical residues per context and trench
Table 6: Composition of iron ore
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