Archaeological Excavations at the North Annexe, York Guildhall

Ben Savine

doi:10.11141/ia.71.10

8.1 The Human Bone by Carina Summerfield-Hill

Introduction

Excavations at the site of The North Annexe, York Guildhall revealed the articulated remains of ten individuals and 1,017 fragments of disarticulated bone associated with the former Augustinian friary.

Osteological analysis was undertaken to determine where possible: condition of bone present, completeness of the skeleton, estimation of age and sex, stature, potential for non-metric trait analysis, and assessment of dental and skeletal pathology. This analysis also includes a concordance of the disarticulated remains in order to identify the minimum number of individuals (MNI), along with (where possible) demographic attributes, metrics, and pathology.

Methodology

The condition of skeletal material was assessed macroscopically and recorded according to guidelines set out by BABAO and Mitchell and Brickley (2017). Preservation was graded as Good (grades 0–2), Fair (3–4) and Poor (5–6). Completeness was categorised as 5–10%, 11–30%, 31–50%, 51–75%, 76–100%. Bone fragmentation was categorised as low, moderate, and high and bone surface condition grades 0–4. In instances where soil acidity, drainage, or burial type affected the overall preservation these were recorded as post-depositional or taphonomic change.

The sex and age estimations were achieved following methods recommended by Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994), and by Mitchell and Brickley (2017). The age of the individuals was based on epiphyseal fusion of the long bones (Schwartz 1995, 185–222; Schaefer et al. 2009; Ubelaker 1989), bone measurements for non-adults (Schaefer et al. 2009), dental development and attrition (Ubelaker 1978; Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994; Brothwell 1981) and, where possible, the auricular surface (Lovejoy et al. 1985) and pubic symphysis (Brooks and Suchey 1990; Todd 1921a; Todd 1921b). Composite methods for refinement of adult age range were used where possible. The remains were assessed visually for macroscopic assessment of sex based, where possible, on the morphological characteristics of the skull and pelvic regions (Schwartz 1995, 280–1; Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994; Phenice 1969; Milner 1992; Acsádi and Nemeskéri 1970), and metric data (Stewart 1979).

Stature was calculated from long bone measurements using the method devised by Trotter and Gleser (1952), Trotter (1970) and Jantz et al. (1994). Assessing whether non-metric traits could be scored was followed by methods recommended by Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994), along with musculoskeletal markers. General disease classifications followed Waldron (2009), Brothwell (1963) and Ortner and Putschar (1981).

The disarticulated remains were examined by context and described under the following headings: total bag weight, bag fragment count, element, side, area, sex, age, measurements, and pathology. The MNI (minimal number of individuals) was calculated by determining the most frequently represented skeletal element for each age/sex class (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994).

This assessment has been compiled in line with CIfA standards (Mitchell and Brickley 2017), and Historic England guidance (Mays 2018).

Results

Skeletal Preservation

The overall skeletal preservation of the articulated assemblage comprised two individuals with poor bone preservation (SK 5 and 8), four with fair (SK 1, 6, 9 and 10), and four with good preservation (SK 2, 3, 4 and 7). The majority of the individuals were assigned to the 11–30% completeness category (SK 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9 and 10), with one individual assigned to 31–50% completeness (SK 4) and one individual assigned to 5–10% completeness (SK 8). The bone fragmentation ranged from low to high with four individuals in the low category (SK 1, 2, 3 and 7), three with moderate fragmentation (SK 4, 6 and 10) and three with high fragmentation (SK 5, 8 and 9). Surface bone condition was good with eight individuals assigned to grade 1 (SK 1–3, 5–8 and 10) and two assigned to grade 2 (SK 4 and 9) (Figure 99–102, Table 48).

Figure 99: Bone preservation
Figure 100: Skeletal completeness
Figure 101: Bone fragmentation
Figure 102: Surface bone condition

Table 48: Skeletal Preservation
Context Number	Skeleton Number	Preservation	Completeness	Fragmentation	Surface Condition
19023	SK1	Fair	11-30%	Low	Grade 1
19024	SK2	Good	11-30%	Low	Grade 1
19056	SK3	Good	11-30%	Low	Grade 1
19060	SK4	Good	31-50%	Low	Grade 2
19065	SK5	Poor	11-30%	High	Grade 1
19068	SK6	Fair	11-30%	Moderate	Grade 1
19072	SK7	Good	11-30%	Low	Grade 1
19077	SK8	Poor	5-10%	High	Grade 1
19203	SK9	Fair	11-30%	High	Grade 2
8058	SK10	Fair	11-30%	Moderate	Grade 1

Demographic Attributes

Sex

The assemblage consisted of four males (SK 1, 2, 5 and 7), one probable female (SK 9), and four individuals for whom sex could not be determined (SK 3, 6, 8 and 10). Sex estimation was not attempted on adolescent (SK 4) due to a lack of sexual dimorphic traits (Figure 103).

Figure 103: Sex categories of assemblage

Age

The assemblage consisted of one adolescent (SK 4), one young adult (18–25 years) (SK 9), one young/prime adult (18–25/26–34) (SK 8), one prime adult (26–34 years) (SK 7), one middle adult (35–44 years) (SK 2), one mature adult (45+ years) (SK 1), one mature/older adult (45+/60+ years) (SK 10), and three adults for whom age could not be specified (18+ years) (SK 3, 5, 6) (Figure 104).

Figure 104: Age categories of assemblage

Metric Data and Non-Metric Traits

Stature

The stature for five individuals (SK 1, 2, 3, 6 and 10) was calculated based on long bone measurements of the femur, humerus, tibia and radius, which varied based on individual element preservation. SK 1 (male) had a stature of 176.508 3.27cm (femur) and SK 2 (male) was 169.934 ± 4.05cm (humerus). Regarding SK 3, 6, 10 these individuals were of undetermined sex, thus should SK 3 be a male they would have had a height of 165.502 ± 3.37cm whereas if they were a female their height would be 162.48 ± 3.66cm (tibia). If SK 6 was a male, they would have a height of 159.524 ± 4.32cm whereas if they were a female their height would be 155.892 ± 4.24cm (radius) and if SK 10 were a male they would have a height of 170.864 ± 4.32cm or if they were a female a height of 170.112 ± 4.24cm (radius).

Cranio-Facial Traits

Only one individual (SK 7, prime adult male) was sufficiently preserved to allow for morphological assessment of cranio-facial traits for their potential to elucidate the possibility of non-local origin. These scores were consistent with European cranio-facial traits.

Non-Metric Traits

Non-metric traits are variations in the morphological characteristics of the skeleton. They may comprise additional or unusual bony processes, canals, nodules, facets, or sutures. The significance of such traits in contemporary studies is based on the knowledge that such variations show familial inheritance in humans, though some are more commonly attributed with mechanical stressors or environmental factors.

SK 1 (mature adult male) displayed an inferior double articular facet on the left talus and bilateral peroneal tubercles present on the calcanei. SK 7 (prime adult male) displayed on the cranium a lambdoid ossicle on the right and left sides, and an accessory infraorbital foramen on the left side. SK 9 (young adult probable female) had a congenital absence of the right and left lower third molars, whilst the upper third molars had fully erupted.

Musculoskeletal Markers

Traits which are more aligned with continuous mechanical stressors, such as habitual squatting, can be useful in elucidating more about the lived experience of a buried individual. In the assemblage several musculoskeletal markers (MSM) could be definitively scored in addition to probable heritable non-metric traits discussed above.

SK 3 (adult undetermined sex) displayed more pronounced muscle attachments on the right and left proximal and distal anterior surfaces of the fibula. SK 10 (mature/older adult sex undetermined) had pronounced muscle attachments on the right radius along the oblique line and the interosseous crest.

The development of more pronounced muscle attachments in the leg bones and the pelvic area points to activities such as squatting, walking, and lifting, whilst in the arms points to twisting/lifting type activities. In this instance, age may also be a contributing factor as SK 10 was a mature/older adult.

Pathology

Analysis of the bones and teeth for the presence of abnormalities attributed to developmental conditions and dental and bone pathologies was carried out and demonstrated that five individuals displayed signs of pathology (SK 1, 5, 7–10).

Skeleton 1: Mature Adult (45+) Male

This individual displayed an exostosis, a slight bony spur, on the proximal anterior surface of the right fibula that was likely to be due to muscle trauma or degenerative joint disease. The latter is associated with gradual bone deterioration commonly associated with advancing age or physical lifestyle with the presence of osteophytic new bone around joint or body margins (Roberts and Manchester 2005, 132–63).

Skeleton 5: Adult Unspecified (18+) Male

Dental pathologies in the form of opacity and enamel hypoplasia consisting of grooved defects were observed which are caused by prolonged periods of arrested secretion of the enamel matrix during childhood, which occur as a result of a prolonged illness or malnutrition (Roberts and Manchester 2005, 75–6; White and Folkens 2005, 329).

Skeleton 7: Middle Adult (35–44) Male

Ectocranial porosity was observed on the frontal and parietal bones of the skull that was characterised by an 'orange peel-like' porosity that may be interpreted as a non-specific bone infection (Figure 105). However, the individual also displayed cribra orbitalia on their orbital roofs consisting of pinpoint and coalesced porosity (type 3) suggesting a resolved lesion (Figure 106). This condition is a metabolic disorder that is associated with the skeletal changes related to anaemia (iron deficiency). The orbital roofs are affected bilaterally, whereby 'holes' form (orbital lesions). It may be that the ectocranial 'orange-peel' porosity may also be linked to anaemia (Stewart-Macadam 1989; Roberts and Manchester 2005, 229–30). An alternative is that we may be looking at a case of scurvy, also a metabolic disease resulting in vitamin C deficiency and that the ectocranial 'orange-peel like' porosity along with the resolved lesions on the orbital roofs may be linked to such a metabolic disorder (Snoddy et al. 2018).

Figure 105: SK 7, cranium displaying 'orange peel-like' surface. Scale 2cm

Figure 106: SK 7, cribra orbitalia. Scale 5cm

Dental pathologies present on this individual (Figure 107) consisted of:

dental supragingival calculus - mineralised plaque, in this case found above the gum,
periodontal disease - a consequence of gingivitis, an inflammation of the gums that is often caused by an excess of calculus, resulting in resorption of the alveolar bone and loss of the periodontal ligament supporting the teeth which can ultimately lead to ante-mortem tooth loss (Roberts and Manchester 2005, 73–4; White and Folkens 2005, 330).
Dental caries - an infectious and transmissible disease that is caused by the fermentation of food by bacteria that is present on the teeth in the form of plaque. Dental caries occur as small opaque spots on the teeth or cavities (Roberts and Manchester 2005, 65–71; Hillson 1986, 287; White and Folkens 2005, 329),
Enamel hypoplasia - present in the form of faint horizontal grooves around the crown (Hillson 1996, 165–6).
Ante-mortem tooth loss (AMTL) - the loss of a tooth during life that can be linked to age, diet, and oral hygiene of the individual (Roberts and Manchester 2005, 73–4).

Figure 107: SK 7, dental pathologies of AMTL and a large carie highlighted. Scale 2cm

Skeleton 8: Young/Prime Adult (18–25/26–34) Sex Not Recordable

Despite the poor preservation of this individual and only rib fragments being recovered, hints of the metabolic disorder rickets was found, with a 'flute'-shaped flaring of a sternal rib end. Rickets is a vitamin D deficiency during the growing period (Roberts and Manchester 2005, 237).

Skeleton 9: Young Adult (18–25) Probable Female

Dental pathologies in the form of AMTL, supragingival calculus, fissures and dental caries. A possible developmental defect was also observed on the lower 3rd molars which were unerupted, whilst the upper 3rd molars were fully erupted.

Skeleton 10: Mature/Older Adult (45+/60+) Sex Undetermined

Degenerative joint disease was present on this individual in the form of severe osteophytes on a single vertebral body, along with bony spurs occurring on the right radial tuberosity with advancing age being a contributing factor (Figure 108).

Figure 108: SK 10, osteophytes around the joint margins of a vertebra body attributed to degenerative joint disease and advancing age. Scale 2cm

Myositis ossificans of new bone growth was observed adjacent to the linea aspera on the right and left femur, being more severe on the left femur. This is attributed to the ossification of the biceps femoris or gluteus maxima muscles due to trauma. This condition was also observed on the right radius along the interosseous crest attributed to the ossification of muscles such as the supinator or flexor pollicis longus and on the right and left pelvis around the ischial tuberosity, attributed to the ossification of muscles such as gemellus inferior, obturator externus and quadratus femoris (Figure 109 Figure 110, Figure 111).

Figure 109: SK 10, periosteal new bone on the right radial tuberosity attributed to degenerative joint disease, along with myositis ossificans of new bone growth along the interosseous crest linked to muscle trauma. Scale 5cm

Figure 110: SK 10, myositis ossificans on the left and right ischium displaying new bone on the ischial tuberosity related to muscle trauma. Scale 5cm

Figure 111: SK 10, myositis ossificans along the linea aspera on the left femur attributed to muscle trauma. Scale 2cm

A decrease in bone density and the presence of bone porosity on the pelvis and sacrum is indicative of osteoporosis, a metabolic disease associated with age, diet, and activity (Roberts and Manchester 2005, 242-7).

Disarticulated Remains

A total of 1,017 fragments of disarticulated human bone weighing 12.248kg was recovered from 26 contexts.

The assemblage mainly consisted of adult material with six fragments of juvenile bone. Calculation of a minimum number of individuals (MNI) allowing for a better understanding of palaeodemography and the wider context of the site was carried out. The left femur was the most common element, and was used to calculate an MNI of 8, whilst the juvenile remains had a MNI of 1 as no repeat elements were recovered. Pathologies were observed on remains from the majority of the contexts.

Degenerative joint disease (DJD, also known as arthritis) was found on the patellar surface of a left femur, accompanied by osteophytes around the margin of its lateral epicondyle. DJD is the erosion of a joint surface caused by the breakdown of the joint cartilage. This leads to bone exposure, which in turn leads to the bone becoming hardened (sclerosis) and polished (eburnation). Spinal osteoarthritis was also recorded, with the presence of osteophytes around the oval articulation for the dens on a 1st cervical vertebra, and also on a number of further cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae (Roberts and Manchester 2005, 132–63).

Schmorl's nodes were observed on a number of vertebrae which are formed when the intervertebral discs become herniated under stress and exert pressure on the adjacent vertebral bodies. It is most common in the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spine and can affect both the superior and/or inferior surfaces of the vertebral bodies. Past studies have suggested that the presence of Schmorl's nodes can be associated with degenerative changes or an isolated traumatic episode but can also be attributed to specific disorders such as Scheuermann's disease, metabolic and neoplastic diseases. However, more recent studies have shown that the occurrence is probably associated with the vertebral development process during an individual's early growth (Dar et al. 2010).

A number of metabolic diseases were also observed, with osteoporosis being found on a tibia and thoracic vertebral body with decreased bone density and an increase in bone porosity associated with age, diet, and activity. A case of cribra orbitalia was observed on the orbital roof of a skull fragment, which is attributed to skeletal changes associated with anaemia (iron deficiency). A case of rickets (vitamin D deficiency) was also identified with the bowing of a right femur.

Trauma was also observed on an isolated 1st metacarpal which displayed a transverse fracture with evidence of healing (Figure 112). A compression fracture on a lumbar vertebra was also found.

Figure 112: 1st metacarpal with a transverse fracture with evidence of healing. Scale 5cm

Dental pathologies observed consisted of calculus, caries, periapical lesion(s), periodontal disease, enamel hypoplasia and AMTL.

Conclusion

A total of ten articulated medieval skeletons along with 1,017 fragments of disarticulated bone were macroscopically analysed from the site at the Guildhall, York. Regarding the articulated remains, the assemblage as a whole was lacking skeletal completeness, with the majority falling into the 11–30% category, however, despite this the majority showed good bone preservation with low fragmentation and good bone surface condition.

The articulated individuals consisted of mainly adult individuals with a single adolescent. The adult individuals that could be accurately sexed indicate that the male gender was of the higher prevalence amounting to four individuals with one possible female, whilst the remaining four adults were sex undetermined due to preservation. There was also a range of ages at death: three individuals were only identified as adults (18+), and the remaining individuals amounted to one young adult (18–25), one young/prime adult (18–25/26–34), one prime adult (26–34), one middle adult (35–44), one mature adult (45+) and one mature/older adult (45+/60+).

The health of the articulated individuals appears to show both skeletal and dental pathologies. The skeletal pathologies observed were degenerative joint disease with the presence of osteophytic new bone. Metabolic disorders were seen with a case of anaemia (iron deficiency) or possibly even scurvy (vitamin C deficiency), osteoporosis, and muscle trauma with myositis ossificans. Dental pathologies point to signs of poor oral health, with calculus, caries, AMTL and periodontal disease all being present within the assemblage. There were also cases of enamel hypoplasia and opacity that are signs of prolonged illness or malnutrition, which reflect the health status and diet of the individual. Such events occur in the early stages of life when teeth are developing and remain on the teeth. A possible dental developmental defect was also observed with unerupted lower 3rd molars whilst the upper 3rd molars on the same individual were fully erupted.

The stature of five individuals was calculated (SK 1–3, 6, 10). Stature averages by period have previously been determined by a study carried out by Roberts and Cox (2003, 396). The male mean stature for the early/late medieval period is 172/171cm and the female mean stature is 161/159cm.

When comparing such data to the individuals at the Guildhall we see SK 1 (male) had a stature of 176.508 3.27cm and SK 2 (male) had a stature of 169.934 ± 4.05cm indicating that SK 1 was well above the mean stature for the period whilst SK 2 was below. SK 3 had a stature of 165.502 ± 3.37cm (male)/162.48 ± 3.66cm (female) which if male would be below the mean stature but if female would be above the mean stature. SK 6 had a stature of 159.524 ± 4.32cm (male)/155.892 ± 4.24cm (female) which if male or female they would be below the mean stature and finally SK 10 had a stature of 170.864 ± 4.32cm (male)/170.112 ± 4.24cm (female), which if male would be below the mean stature and if female would be above the mean stature. Overall, the stature results are mixed providing both evidence for above and below mean stature for the medieval period. It is difficult to ascertain precisely why we see these differences as there are many variables to consider such as genetic make-up, nutrition, environment and disease, but there are hints of better health with SK 1 being well above the mean stature for the medieval period (Roberts and Manchester 2005, 40–1).

The disarticulated remains primarily consisted of adult material with limited evidence of juvenile remains. An MNI of 9 was calculated and pathologies observed consisted of degenerative joint disease, spinal osteoarthritis, Schmorl's nodes forming due to herniated intervertebral discs, trauma with a fractured metacarpal, compression fracture of the vertebra, signs of the metabolic disease rickets (vitamin D deficiency) and anaemia (iron deficiency), and osteoporosis and also comparable dental pathologies as seen in the articulated individuals.

The assemblage clearly shows signs that metabolic diseases were present within the population with, as discussed above, evidence of enamel hypoplasia, anaemia or possibly scurvy, and rickets. The extent of such prevalence unfortunately cannot be expanded upon from such a small sample size but does provide hints of a population being subjected to dietary deficiencies.

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Historic Maps

OS 1930 25 inch: 1 mile map sheets Yorkshire CLXXIV.14.

OS 1963 1:2500 SE 5849 and SE 5949.